|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
||||
|
|
||||
|
||||
Symposia Epidemiology of Brain Tumors |
Division of Epidemiology/Clinical Research, Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455 (J.G.G.); and Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 (E.W.)
1 Address correspondence and reprint requests to James G. Gurney, PhD, University of Minnesota, Division of Pediatric Epidemiology, 1300 S. 2nd St., Ste. 300, Minneapolis, MN 55454-1015.
Abstract
Epidemiologic and experimental research on the potential carcinogenic effects of extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields (EMF) has now been conducted for over two decades. Cancer epidemiology studies in relation to EMF have focused primarily on brain cancer and leukemia, both from residential sources of exposure in children and adults and from occupational exposure in adult men. Because genotoxic effects of EMF have not been shown, most recent laboratory research has attempted to show biological effects that could be related to cancer promotion. In this report, we briefly review residential and occupational EMF studies on brain cancer. We also provide a general review of experimental studies as they relate both to the biological plausibility of an EMF-brain cancer relation and to the insufficiency of such research to help guide exposure assessment in epidemiologic studies. We conclude from our review that no recent research, either epidemiologic or experimental, has emerged to provide reasonable support for a causal role of EMF on brain cancer.
References
Adey, W.R. (1993) Biological effects of electromagnetic fields. J. Cell. Biochem. 51,410 -416.[Web of Science][Medline]
Alonso, A., Abreu, P., and Fajardo, N. (1993) Regulation of mammalian pineal melatonin production by the electromagnetic spectrum. In: Yu, H.S., and Reiter R.J. (Eds.), Melatonin: Biosynthesis, physiological effects, and clinical applications. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press.
Anderson, L.E. (1993) Biological effects of extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields: In vivo studies. Am. Indus. Hygiene Assoc. J. 54,186 -196.
Armstrong, B., Thériault, G., Guénel, P., Deadman,
J., Goldberg, M., and Héroux, P. (1994) Association
between exposure to pulsed electromagnetic fields and cancer in electric
utility workers in Quebec, Canada, and France. Am. J.
Epidemiol. 140,805
-820.
Baris, D., Armstrong, B.G., Deadman, J., and Thériault, G.
(1996) A mortality study of electrical utility workers in
Québec. Occup. Environ. Med.
53, 25-31.
Bates, M.N. (1991) Extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields and cancer: The epidemiologic evidence. Environ. Health Perspect. 95,147 -156.[Web of Science][Medline]
Bawin, S.M., and Adey, W.R. (1976) Sensitivity of
calcium binding in cerebral tissue to weak environmental electric fields
oscillating at low frequency. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S
A 73,1999
-2003.
Blackman, C.F. (1990) ELF effects on calcium homeostasis. In: Wilson, B.W., Stevens, R.G., and Anderson, L.E. (Eds.) Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields: The Question of Cancer. Columbus, OH: Battelle Press.
Blackman, C.F., Benane, S.G., Rabinowitz, J.R., House, D.E., and Jones, W.T. (1985) A role for the magnetic field in the radiation-induced efflux of calcium ions from brain tissue in vitro. Bioelectromagnetics 6,327 -337.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Blackman, C.F., Benane, S.G., Elliott, D.J., House, D.E., and Pollock, M.M. (1988) Influence of electromagnetic fields on the efflux of calcium ions from brain tissue in vitro: A three-model analysis consistent with the frequency response up to 510 Hz. Bioelectromagnetics 9,215 -227.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Brzezinski, A. (1997) Mechanism of disease: Melatonin
in humans. N. Engl. J. Med.
336,186
-195.
Burch, J.B., Reif, J.S., Yost, M.G., Keefe, T.J., and Pitrat, C.A. (1998) Nocturnal excretion of a urinary melatonin metabolite among electric utility workers. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 24,183 -189.[Web of Science][Medline]
Cridland, N.A., Cragg, T.A., Haylock, R.G.E., and Saunders, R.D. (1996) Effects of 50 Hz magnetic field exposure on the rate of DNA synthesis by normal human fibroblasts. Int. J. Radiat. Biol. 69,503 -511.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Davis, F.G., and Preston-Martin, S. (1998) Epidemiology: Incidence and survival. In: Bigner, D.D., McLendon, R.E., and Bruner, J.M. (Eds.), Russell and Rubinstein's Pathology of Tumors of the Nervous System, Vol. 1. London: Arnold. pp. 5-45.
Davis, F.G., McCarthy, B., and Jukich, P. (1999) The descriptive epidemiology of brain tumors. Neuroimaging Clin. N. Am., in press.
Dockerty, J.D., Elwood, J.M., Skegg, D.C., and Herbison, G.P. (1998) Electromagnetic field exposures and childhood cancers in New Zealand. Cancer Causes Control 9, 299-309.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
EPRI (Electrical Power Research Institute) (1993)Survey of residential magnetic field sources. Vol. 1: Goals, results, and conclusions . Report No. EPRI TR-102759–V1, Electrical Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA.
Feychting, M., and Ahlbom, A. (1993) Magnetic fields
and cancer in children residing near Swedish high-voltage power lines.
Am. J. Epidemiol. 138,467
-481.
Feychting, M., and Ahlbom, A. (1994) Magnetic fields, leukemia, and central nervous system tumors in Swedish adults residing near high-voltage power lines. Epidemiology 5, 501-509.[Web of Science][Medline]
Feychting, M., Forssén, U., and Floderus, B. (1997) Occupational and residential magnetic field exposure and leukemia and central nervous system tumors. Epidemiology 8,384 -389.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Floderus, B., Persson, T., Stenlund, C., Wennberg, A., Öst, Å., and Knave, B. (1993) Occupational exposure to electromagnetic fields in relation to leukemia and brain tumors: A case-control study in Sweden. Cancer Causes Control 4, 465-476.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Floderus, B., Tornqvist, S., and Stenlund, C. (1994) Incidence of selected cancers in Swedish railway workers, 1961–79. Cancer Causes Control 5,189 -194.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Friedman, D.R., Hatch, E.E., Tarone, R., Kaune, W.T., Kleinerman, R.A., Wacholder, S., Boice, J.D., Jr., and Linet, M.S. (1996) Childhood exposure to magnetic fields: Residential area measurements compared to personal dosimetry. Epidemiology 7, 151-155.[Web of Science][Medline]
Goodman, R., and Henderson, A.S. (1990) Exposure of cells to extremely low frequency magnetic fields: Relationship to malignancy? Cancer Cells 2,355 -359.[Web of Science][Medline]
Goodman, R., Basset, C.A.L., and Henderson, A.S.
(1983) Pulsing electromagnetic fields induce cellular
transcription. Science
220,1283
-1285.
Goodman, R., Wei, L.X., Xu, J.C., and Henderson, A.S. (1989) Exposure of human cells to low-frequency electromagnetic fields results in quantitative changes in transcripts. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1009,216 -220.[Medline]
Graham, C., Cook, M.R., Riffle, D.W., Gerkovich, M.M., and Cohen, H.D. (1996) Nocturnal melatonin levels in human volunteers exposed to intermittent 60 Hz magnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics 17,263 -273.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Graham, C., Cook, M.R., and Riffle, D.W. (1997) Human melatonin during continuous magnetic field exposure. Bioelectromagnetics 18,166 -171.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Guénel, P., Nicolau, J., Imbernon, E., Warret, G., and Goldberg, M. (1993) Design of a job exposure matrix on electric and magnetic fields: Selection of an efficient job classification for workers in thermoelectric power production plants. Int. J. Epidemiol. 22 (Suppl. 2),S16 -S21.[Abstract]
Guénel, P., Nicolau, J., Imbernon, E., Chevalier, A., and
Goldberg, M. (1996) Exposure to 50–Hz electric field and
incidence of leukemia, brain tumors, and other cancers among French electric
utility workers. Am. J. Epidemiol.
144,1107
-1121.
Gurney, J.G., Mueller, B.A., Davis, S., Schwartz, S.M., Stevens,
R.G., and Kopecky, K.J. (1996) Childhood brain tumor occurrence
in relation to residential power line configurations, electric heating
sources, and electric appliance use. Am. J. Epidemiol.
143,120
-128.
Harrington, J.M., McBride, D.I., Sorahan, T., Paddle, G.M., and van
Tongeren, M. (1997) Occupational exposure to magnetic fields in
relation to mortality from brain cancer among electricity generation and
transmission workers. Occup. Environ. Med.
54, 7-13.
Hendee, W.R., and Boteler, J.C. (1994) The question of health effects from exposure to electromagnetic fields. Health Physics 66,127 -136.[Web of Science][Medline]
Hester, G.L. (1992) Electric and magnetic fields: Managing an uncertain risk. Environment 34, 7-31.
Johansen, C., and Olsen, J.H. (1998) Risk of cancer
among Danish utility workers—a nationwide cohort study. Am.
J. Epidemiol. 147,548
-555.
Karabakhtsian, R., Broude, N., Shalts, N., Kochlatyi, S., Goodman, R., and Henderson, A.S. (1994) Calcium is necessary in the cell response to EM fields. FEBS Lett. 349, 1-6.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Kaune, W.T. (1993) Assessing human exposure to power-frequency electric and magnetic fields. Environ. Health Perspect. 101 (Suppl. 4),121 -133.
Kaune, W.T., Stevens, R.G., Callahan, N.J., Severson, R.K., and Thomas, D.B. (1987) Residential magnetic and electric fields. Bioelectromagnetics 8,315 -335.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Kaune, W.T., Darby, S.D., Gardner, S.N., Hrubec, Z., Iriye, R.N., and Linet, M.S. (1994) Development of a protocol for assessing time-weighted-average exposures of young children to power-frequency magnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics 15, 33-51.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Kavet, R. (1996) EMF and current cancer concepts. Bioelectromagnetics 17,339 -357.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Kavet, R., Silva, J.M., and Thornton, D. (1992) Magnetic field exposure assessment for adult residents of Maine who live near and far away from overhead transmission lines. Bioelectromagnetics 13,35 -55.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Kelsh, M.A., and Sahl, J.D. (1997) Mortality among a cohort of electric utility workers, 1960–1991. Am. J. Ind. Med. 31,534 -544.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Kheifets, L.I., Afifi, A.A., Buffler, P.A., and Zhang, Z.W. (1995) Occupational electric and magnetic field exposure and brain cancer: A meta-analysis. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 37,1327 -1341.[Web of Science][Medline]
Kromhout, H., Loomis, D.P., Mihlan G.J., Peipins, L.A., Kleckner, R.C., Iriye, R., and Savitz, D.A. (1995) Assessment and grouping of occupational magnetic field exposure in five electric utility companies. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 21, 43-50.[Web of Science][Medline]
Kromhout, H., Loomis, D.P., Kleckner, R.C., and Savitz, D.A. (1997) Sensitivity of the relationship between cumulative magnetic field exposure and brain cancer mortality to choice of monitoring data grouping scheme. Epidemiol. 8, 442-445.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Kuijten, R.R., and Bunin, G.R. (1993) Risk factors for childhood brain tumors. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2,277 -288.[Web of Science][Medline]
Lacy-Hulbert, A., Metcalfe, J.C., and Hesketh, R.
(1998) Biological responses to electromagnetic fields.
FASEB J. 12,395
-420.
Landis, S.H., Murray, T., Bolden, S., and Wingo, P.A.
(1999) Cancer statistics, 1999. CA Cancer J.
Clin. 49,8
-31.
Li, C.Y., Thériault, G., and Lin, R.S. (1997) Residential exposure to 60–Hertz magnetic fields and adult cancers in Taiwan. Epidemiolology 8, 25-30.
Lin, R.S., Dischinger, P.C., Conde, J., and Farrell, K.P. (1985) Occupational exposure to electromagnetic fields and the occurrence of brain tumors: An analysis of possible associations. J. Occup. Med. 27,413 -419.[Web of Science][Medline]
Lindh, T., and Andersson, L.-I. (1994) Exposure of workers in the electric power industry to electric and magnetic fields. Rev. Environ. Health 10,117 -125.[Medline]
Linet, M.S., Hatch, E.E., Kleinerman, R.A., Robison, L.L., Kaune,
W.T., Friedman, D.R., Severson, R.K., Haines, C.M., Hartsock, C.T., Niwa, S.,
Wacholder, S., and Tarone, R.E. (1997) Residential exposure to
magnetic fields and acute lymphoblastic leukemia in children. N.
Engl. J. Med. 337,1
-7.
Loomis, D.P., Kromhout, H., Peipins, L.A., Kleckner, R.C., Iriye, R., and Savitz, D.A. (1994) Sampling design and field methods of a large, randomized, multisite survey of occupational magnetic field exposure. App. Occup. Environ. Med. 9, 49-52.
Loomis, D.P., Kromhout, H., Kleckner, R.C., and Savitz, D.A. (1998) Effects of the analytical treatment of exposure data on associations of cancer and occupational magnetic field exposure. Am. J. Indus. Med. 34,49 -56.
McCann, J. (1998) Cancer risk assessment of extremely low frequency electric and magnetic fields: A critical review of methodology. Environ. Health Perspect. 106,701 -717.
McCann, J., Dietrich, F., Rafferty, C., and Martin, A.O. (1993) A critical review of the genotoxic potential of electric and magnetic fields. Mutat. Res. 297, 61-95.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
McCann, J., Kavet, R., and Rafferty, C.N. (1997) Testing electromagnetic fields for potential carcinogenic activity: A critical review of animal models. Environ. Health Perspect. 105,81 -103.
McCann, J., Dietrich, F., and Rafferty, C. (1998) The genotoxic potential of electric and magnetic fields: An update. Mutat. Res. 411,45 -86.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
McLean, J.R., Stuchly, M.A., Mitchel, R.E.J., Wilkinson, D., Yang, H., Goddard, M., Lecuyer, D.W., Schunk, M., Callary, E., and Morrison, D. (1991) Cancer promotion in the mouse-skin model by a 60–Hz magnetic field: II. Tumor development and immune response. Bioelectromagnetics 12,273 -287.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
McLean, J.R., Thansandote, A., Lecuyer, D., and Goddard, M. (1997) The effect of 60–Hz magnetic fields on co-promotion of chemically induced skin tumors on SENCAR mice: A discussion of three studies. Environ. Health Perspect. 105, 94-96.[Web of Science][Medline]
Milham, S., Jr. (1982) Mortality from leukemia in workers exposed to electrical and magnetic fields. N. Engl. J. Med. 307,249 .[Medline]
Miller, A.B., To, T., Agnew, D.A., Wall, C., and Green, L.M.
(1996) Leukemia following occupational exposure to 60–Hz
electric and magnetic fields among Ontario electric utility workers.
Am. J. Epidemiol. 144,150
-160.
Miller, R.D., Neuberger, J.S., and Gerald, K.B. (1997)
Brain cancer and leukemia and exposure to power-frequency (50– to
60–Hz) electric and magnetic fields. Epidemiol.
Rev. 19,273
-293.
Moulder, J.E., and Foster, K.R. (1995) Biological effects of power-frequency fields as they relate to carcinogenesis. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 209,309 -324.[CrossRef][Medline]
NIEHS (National Institute of Environmental Health Services) (1997) EMF Science Review Symposium—Breakout Group Reports for Theoretical Mechanisms and In Vitro Research Findings. March 24–27. Available through the EMF RAPID Program, www.niehs.nih.gov/emfrapid/home.htm.
NIEHS (National Institute of Environmental Health Services) (1998) EMF Science Review Symposium—Breakout Group Reports for Clinical and In Vivo Laboratory Findings. April 6–9. Available through the EMF RAPID Program, www.niehs.nih.gov/emfrapid/home.htm.
Olsen, J.H., Nielsen, A., and Schulgen, G. (1993) Residence near high voltage facilities and risk of cancer in children. Br. Med. J. 307,891 -895.
Patterson, R.M. (1992) Exposure assessment for electric and magnetic fields. J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 2,159 -176.[Web of Science][Medline]
Petitti, D. (1991) Associations are not effects.
Am. J. Epidemiol. 133,101
-102.
Pfluger, D.H., and Minder, C.E. (1996) Effects of exposure to 16.7 Hz magnetic fields on urinary 6–hydroxymelatonin sulfate excretion of Swiss railway workers. J. Pineal Res. 21,91 -100.[Web of Science][Medline]
Poole, C., and Trichopoulos, D. (1991) Extremely low-frequency electric and magnetic fields and cancer. Cancer Causes Control. 2,267 -276.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Portier, C.J., and Wolfe, M.S. (eds.) (1998)Assessment of health effects from exposure to power-line frequency electric and magnetic fields—working group report . NIH Publication No. 98–3981. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.
Preston-Martin, S., Gurney, J.G., Pogoda, J.M., Holly, E.A., and
Mueller, B.A. (1996a) Brain tumor risk in children in relation to
use of electric blankets and water bed heaters: Results from the United States
West Coast Childhood Brain Tumor Study. Am. J.
Epidemiol. 143,1116
-1122.
Preston-Martin, S., Navidi, W., Thomas, D., Lee, P.J., Bowman, J.,
and Pogoda, J. (1996b) Los Angeles study of residential magnetic
fields and childhood brain tumors. Am. J. Epidemiol.
143,105
-119.
Reiter, R.J. (1994) Melatonin suppression by static and extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields: Relationship to the reported increased incidence of cancer. Rev. Environ. Health 10,171 -186.[Medline]
Rothman, K.J, and Greenland, S. (1998) Modern Epidemiology. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, PA.
Sahl, J.D., Kelsh, M.A., and Greenland, S. (1993) Cohort and nested case-control studies of hematopoietic cancers and brain cancer among electric utility workers. Epidemiol. 4, 104-114.[Web of Science][Medline]
Sahl, J.D., Kelsh, M.A., Smith, R.W., and Aseltine, D.A. (1994) Exposure to 60 Hz magnetic fields in the electric utility work environment. Bioelectromagnetics 15, 21-32.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Savitz, D.A. (1993) Overview of epidemiologicalresearch on electric and magnetic fields and cancer. Am. Indus. Hygiene Assoc. J. 54,197 -204.
Savitz, D.A., and Loomis, D.P. (1995) Magnetic field
exposure in relation to leukemia and brain cancer mortality among electric
utility workers. Am. J. Epidemiol.
141,123
-134.
Savitz, D.A., Wachtel, H., Barnes, F.A., John, E.M., and Tvrdik,
J.G. (1988) Case-control study of childhood cancer and exposure
to 60–Hz magnetic fields. Am. J. Epidemiol.
128, 21-38.
Savitz, D., Pearce, N., and Poole, C. (1989)
Methodological issues in the epidemiology of electromagnetic fields and
cancer. Epidemiol. Rev.
11, 59-78.
Scaiano, J.C., Mohtat, N., Cozens, F.L., McLean, J., and Thansandote, A. (1994) Application of the radical pair mechanism to free radicals in organized systems: Can the effects of 60–Hz magnetic fields be predicted from studies under static fields? Bioelectromagnetics 15,549 -554.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Schreiber, G.H., Swaen, G.M., Meijers, J.M.M., Slangen, J.J.M., and
Sturmans, F. (1993) Cancer mortality and residence near
electricity transmission equipment: A retrospective cohort study.
Int. J. Epidemiol. 22,9
-15.
Selmaoui, B., Lambrozo, J., and Touitou, Y. (1996) Magnetic fields and pineal function in humans: Evaluation of nocturnal acute exposure to extremely low frequency magnetic fields on serum melatonin and urinary 6–sulfatoxymelatonin circadian rhythms. Life Sci. 58,1539 -1549.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Semple, S., and Cherrie, J.W. (1998) Factors
influencing personal magnetic field exposure: Preliminary results for power
utility and office workers. Ann. Occup. Hyg.
42,167
-171.
Stevens, R.G. (1993) Biologically based epidemiological studies of electric power and cancer. Environ. Health Perspect. 101 (Suppl. 4),93 -100.
Stevens, R.G. (1996) Epidemiological studies of electromagnetic fields and health. In: Polk, C., and Postow, E. (Eds.), Handbook of Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press, Inc.
Stevens, R.G., and Davis, S. (1996) The melatonin hypothesis: Electric power and breast cancer. Environ. Health Perspect. 104 (Suppl. 1),135 -140.
Stevens, R.G., Wilson, B.W., and Anderson, L.E. (1990) The question of cancer. In: Wilson, B. W., Stevens, R.G., and Anderson, L.E. (Eds.), Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields: The Question of Cancer. Columbus, OH: Battelle Press.
Stuchly, M.A., McLean, J.R., Burnett, R., Goddard, M., Lecuyer, D.W., and Mitchel, R.E. (1992) Modification of tumor promotion in the mouse skin by exposure to an alternating magnetic field. Cancer Lett. 65,1 -7.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Tarone, R.E., Kaune, W.T., Linet, M.S., Hatch, E.E., Kleinerman,
R.A., Robison, L.L., Boice, J.D., Jr., and Wacholder, S. (1998)
Residential wire codes: Reproducibility and relation with measured magnetic
fields. Occup. Environ. Med.
55,333
-339.
Thériault, G., Goldberg, M., Miller, A.B., Armstrong, B.,
Guénel, P., Deadman, J., Imbernon, E., To, T., Chevalier, A., Cyr, D.,
and Wall, C. (1994) Cancer risks associated with occupational
exposure to magnetic fields among electric utility workers in Ontario and
Quebec, Canada, and France: 1970–1989. Am. J.
Epidemiol. 139,550
-572.
Trump, B.F., and Berezesky, I.K. (1995) Calcium-mediated cell injury and cell death. FASEB J. 9, 219-228.[Abstract]
Tynes, T., and Haldorsen, T. (1997) Electromagnetic
fields and cancer in children residing near Norwegian high-voltage power
lines. Am. J. Epidemiol.
145,219
-226.
Tynes, T., Reitan, J.B., and Andersen, A. (1994) Incidence of cancer among workers in Norwegian hydroelectric power companies. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 20,339 -344.[Web of Science][Medline]
Valberg, P.A. (1995) Designing EMF experiments: What is required to characterize "exposure"? Bioelectromagnetics 16,396 -401.
Valberg, P.A. (1996) Electric and magnetic fields (EMF): What do we know about the health effects? Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 68,448 -454.[Web of Science][Medline]
Valberg, P.A., Kavet, R., and Rafferty, C.N. (1997) Can low-level 50/60 Hz electric and magnetic fields cause biological effects? Radiat. Res. 148,2 -21.[Web of Science][Medline]
Verkasalo, P.K., Pukkala, E., Hongisto, M.Y., Valjus, J.E., Jarvinen, P.J, Heikkila, K.V., and Koskenvuo, M. (1993) Risk of cancer in Finnish children living close to power lines. Br. Med. J. 307,895 -899.
Verkasalo, P.K., Pukkala, E., Kaprio, J., Heikkila, K.V., and
Koskenvuo, M. (1996) Magnetic fields of high voltage power lines
and risk of cancer in Finnish adults: Nationwide cohort study. Br.
Med. J. 313,1047
-1051.
Vistnes, A.I., Ramberg, G.B., Bjornevik, L.R., Tynes, T., and Haldorsen, T. (1997) Exposure of children to residential magnetic fields in Norway: Is proximity to power lines an adequate predictor of exposure? Bioelectromagnetics 18, 47-57.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Webb, S.M., and Puig-Domingo, M. (1995) Role of melatonin in health and disease. Clin. Endocrinol. 42,221 -234.[Medline]
Wertheimer, N. (1991) What can wire codes tell us? A historical perspective. Electrical Power Research Institute Science & Community Seminar on Electomagnetic Fields, San Jose, CA. Palo Alto, Calif.: Electrical Power Research Institute.
Wertheimer, N., and Leeper, E. (1979) Electrical
wiring configurations and childhood cancer. Am. J.
Epidemiol. 109,273
-284.
Wertheimer, N., and Leeper, E. (1982) Adult cancer
related to electrical wires near the home. Int. J.
Epidemiol. 11,345
-355.
Wertheimer, N., and Leeper, E. (1987) Magnetic field exposure related to cancer subtypes. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 502,43 -54.[Web of Science][Medline]
Wilson, B.W., Stevens, R.G., and Anderson, L.E. (Eds.) (1990a) Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields: The Question of Cancer. Columbus, OH: Battelle Press.
Wilson, B.W., Wright, C.W., Morris, J.E., Buschbom, R.L., Brown, D.P., Miller, D.L., Somers-Flannigan, R.S., and Anderson, L.E. (1990b) Evidence for an effect of ELF electromagnetic fields on human pineal gland function. J. Pineal. Res. 9, 259-269.[Web of Science][Medline]
Wood, A.W. (1993) Possible health effects of 50/60 Hz electric and magnetic fields: Review of proposed mechanisms. Australas. Phys. Eng. Sci. Med. 16, 1-21.[Medline]
Wrensch, M., Yost, M., Miike, R., Lee G., and Touchstone, J. (1999) Adult glioma in relation to residential power frequency electromagnetic field exposure in the San Francisco area. Epidemiology, in press.
Zaffanella, L.E., Kavet, R., Pappa, J.R., and Sullivan, T.P. (1997) Modeling magnetic fields in residences: Validation of the resicalc program. J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 7, 241-259.[Web of Science][Medline]
CiteULike 
Connotea 
Del.icio.us 
Digg 
Reddit 
Technorati What's this?
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  G. R. Bunin, L. L. Robison, J. A. Biegel, I. F. Pollack, and L. B. Rorke-Adams Parental Heat Exposure and Risk of Childhood Brain Tumor: A Children's Oncology Group Study Am. J. Epidemiol., August 1, 2006; 164(3): 222 - 231. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. A. Kleinerman, M. S. Linet, E. E. Hatch, R. E. Tarone, P. M. Black, R. G. Selker, W. R. Shapiro, H. A. Fine, and P. D. Inskip Self-reported Electrical Appliance Use and Risk of Adult Brain Tumors Am. J. Epidemiol., January 15, 2005; 161(2): 136 - 146. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 H. Sauer, R. Stanelle, J. Hescheler, and M. Wartenberg The DC electrical-field-induced Ca2+ response and growth stimulation of multicellular tumor spheroids are mediated by ATP release and purinergic receptor stimulation J. Cell Sci., August 15, 2002; 115(16): 3265 - 3273. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
